Chapter 3· 32% of exam questions
Canada's history
From the first Europeans and New France through the War of 1812, responsible government and Confederation to the World Wars and modern Canada.
Test yourself on this chapterThe first Europeans
Vikings from Iceland who had settled Greenland a thousand years ago also reached Labrador and Newfoundland; the remains of their settlement at l'Anse aux Meadows are a World Heritage site. Serious European exploration began in 1497 with John Cabot, an Italian who had emigrated to England and was the first to draw a map of Canada's East Coast, setting foot on Newfoundland or Cape Breton Island and claiming the New Founde Land for England — though English settlement waited until 1610. Between 1534 and 1542 Jacques Cartier made three Atlantic crossings and claimed the land for King Francis I of France; he was the first European to explore the St. Lawrence River and to see the sites of Québec City and Montreal. Cartier heard two captured guides use the Iroquoian word kanata, meaning village, and by the 1550s the name Canada was appearing on maps.
Testable facts
- The Vikings from Iceland who colonized Greenland 1,000 years ago also reached Labrador and the island of Newfoundland
- The remains of the Viking settlement at l'Anse aux Meadows are a World Heritage site
- European exploration began in earnest in 1497 with the expedition of John Cabot
- John Cabot was the first to draw a map of Canada's East Coast
- John Cabot was an Italian immigrant to England who claimed the New Founde Land for England in 1497
- English settlement did not begin until 1610
- Between 1534 and 1542 Jacques Cartier made three voyages across the Atlantic, claiming the land for King Francis I of France
- Jacques Cartier was the first European to explore the St. Lawrence River and to set eyes on present-day Québec City and Montreal
- Cartier heard two captured guides speak the Iroquoian word kanata, meaning village
- By the 1550s the name of Canada began appearing on maps
Royal New France
In 1604 French explorers Pierre de Monts and Samuel de Champlain founded the first European settlement north of Florida, first on St. Croix Island in present-day Maine and then at Port-Royal in Acadia, now Nova Scotia. Champlain built a fortress in 1608 at what is now Québec City. The colonists struggled with a harsh climate, and Champlain allied the colony with the Algonquin, Montagnais and Huron, long-standing enemies of the Iroquois — a confederation of five, later six, First Nations who fought the French settlements for a century until peace in 1701. French and Aboriginal people worked together in a vast fur trade driven by European demand for beaver pelts, and leaders such as Jean Talon, Bishop Laval and Count Frontenac built a French empire in North America stretching from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico.
Testable facts
- In 1604 the first European settlement north of Florida was established by French explorers Pierre de Monts and Samuel de Champlain
- The first French settlement was on St. Croix Island, then at Port-Royal in Acadia, present-day Nova Scotia
- In 1608 Champlain built a fortress at what is now Québec City
- Champlain allied the colony with the Algonquin, Montagnais and Huron
- The Iroquois were a confederation of five, later six, First Nations who battled the French settlements for a century
- The French and the Iroquois made peace in 1701
- The fur-trade economy was driven by the demand for beaver pelts in Europe
- Jean Talon, Bishop Laval and Count Frontenac built a French Empire in North America that reached from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico
The struggle for a continent
In 1670 King Charles II of England granted the Hudson's Bay Company exclusive trading rights over the land draining into Hudson Bay, and for the next century the Company competed with Montreal-based traders. The skilled canoemen of that trade were the voyageurs and coureurs des bois, who built strong alliances with First Nations. English colonies on the Atlantic seaboard, dating from the early 1600s, eventually grew richer and more populous than New France, and in the 1700s France and Britain fought for control of North America. In 1759 the British defeated the French at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Québec City, ending France's empire in America; both commanders, Brigadier James Wolfe and the Marquis de Montcalm, were killed leading their troops. Britain then renamed the colony the Province of Quebec, where the French-speaking Catholic habitants, or Canadiens, worked to keep their way of life.
Testable facts
- In 1670 King Charles II of England granted the Hudson's Bay Company exclusive trading rights over the watershed draining into Hudson Bay
- The men of the fur trade who travelled by canoe were called voyageurs and coureurs des bois
- In 1759 the British defeated the French in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Québec City
- The Battle of the Plains of Abraham marked the end of France's empire in America
- The commanders of both armies at the Plains of Abraham, Brigadier James Wolfe and the Marquis de Montcalm, were killed leading their troops
- After the war Great Britain renamed the colony the Province of Quebec
- The French-speaking Catholic people of Quebec were known as habitants or Canadiens
The Quebec Act and the Loyalists
To govern the French Roman Catholic majority, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774 — one of Canada's constitutional foundations. It fitted British institutions to the reality of the province: it allowed religious freedom for Catholics and let them hold public office, which was not then permitted in Britain itself, and it restored French civil law while keeping British criminal law. In 1776 the thirteen British colonies to the south declared independence and became the United States. More than 40,000 people loyal to the Crown, called Loyalists, fled the American Revolution for Nova Scotia and Quebec; Joseph Brant led thousands of Loyalist Mohawk into Canada. About 3,000 black Loyalists, freedmen and slaves came north, and in 1792 some black Nova Scotians given poor land moved on to found Freetown in Sierra Leone.
Testable facts
- The British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774 to better govern the French Roman Catholic majority
- The Quebec Act is one of the constitutional foundations of Canada
- The Quebec Act allowed religious freedom for Catholics and permitted them to hold public office, a practice not then allowed in Britain
- The Quebec Act restored French civil law while maintaining British criminal law
- In 1776 the 13 British colonies to the south of Quebec declared independence and formed the United States
- More than 40,000 Loyalists fled the American Revolution to settle in Nova Scotia and Quebec
- Joseph Brant led thousands of Loyalist Mohawk Indians into Canada
- About 3,000 black Loyalists, freedmen and slaves came north seeking a better life
- In 1792 some black Nova Scotians moved on to establish Freetown, Sierra Leone, a new British colony for freed slaves
The beginnings of democracy and the abolition of slavery
Canada's democratic institutions grew gradually and peacefully. The first representative assembly was elected in Halifax in 1758, Prince Edward Island followed in 1773 and New Brunswick in 1785. The Constitutional Act of 1791 split the Province of Quebec into Upper Canada, largely Loyalist, Protestant and English-speaking, and Lower Canada, heavily Catholic and French-speaking, and granted the Canadas their first legislative assemblies elected by the people; the name Canada became official then. On slavery: the first movement to abolish the transatlantic trade arose in the British Parliament in the late 1700s, and in 1793 Upper Canada under Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe became the first province in the Empire to move toward abolition. Britain prohibited buying and selling slaves in 1807 and abolished slavery across the Empire in 1833. Thousands of escaping slaves reached Canada by the Underground Railroad, a Christian anti-slavery network.
Testable facts
- The first representative assembly was elected in Halifax, Nova Scotia, in 1758
- Prince Edward Island elected a representative assembly in 1773 and New Brunswick in 1785
- Upper Canada and Lower Canada were carved out of the Province of Quebec by the Constitutional Act of 1791
- Upper Canada was mainly Loyalist, Protestant and English-speaking
- Lower Canada was heavily Catholic and French-speaking
- The Constitutional Act granted the Canadas legislative assemblies elected by the people for the first time
- The name Canada became official in 1791 and has been used ever since
- In 1793 Upper Canada, led by Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe, became the first province in the Empire to move toward abolition of slavery
- In 1807 the British Parliament prohibited the buying and selling of slaves
- In 1833 Britain abolished slavery throughout the Empire
- Thousands of slaves escaped from the United States and settled in Canada via the Underground Railroad, a Christian anti-slavery network
The War of 1812
After the Royal Navy destroyed Napoleon's fleet at Trafalgar in 1805 it ruled the seas, and the British Empire, Canada included, fought to stop Bonaparte dominating Europe. British interference with American shipping bred resentment, and believing Canada easy to take the United States invaded in June 1812. It was a miscalculation. Canadian volunteers and First Nations, among them Shawnee under Chief Tecumseh, fought alongside British soldiers. That July Major-General Sir Isaac Brock took Detroit, then died holding off an attack at Queenston Heights, close to Niagara Falls — an engagement the Americans lost. A year later, at Châteauguay south of Montreal, Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry stopped 4,000 American invaders with 460 soldiers, most of them French Canadiens. The Americans burned Government House and the Parliament Buildings at York, now Toronto, and in retaliation Major-General Robert Ross burned the White House in 1814. By 1814 the invasion had failed, and the modern Canada-U.S.A. border is partly its outcome.
Testable facts
- The Royal Navy defeated Napoleon Bonaparte's fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805
- The United States launched an invasion of Canada in June 1812
- Alongside British soldiers in 1812 stood Canadian volunteers and First Nations, Chief Tecumseh's Shawnee among them
- Major-General Sir Isaac Brock captured Detroit but was killed defending against an American attack at Queenston Heights
- At Châteauguay in 1813, 460 soldiers under Lieutenant-Colonel Charles de Salaberry — mostly French Canadiens — halted 4,000 American invaders
- York, today Toronto, lost its Parliament Buildings and Government House to American burning in 1813
- In retaliation in 1814 Major-General Robert Ross led an expedition that burned down the White House in Washington
- By 1814 the American attempt to conquer Canada had failed
- The present-day Canada-U.S.A. border is partly an outcome of the War of 1812
- The War of 1812 ensured that Canada would remain independent of the United States
- In 1813 Laura Secord made a dangerous 19-mile journey on foot to warn Lieutenant James FitzGibbon of a planned American attack
Rebellions and responsible government
In the 1830s reformers in Upper and Lower Canada thought progress toward full democracy was too slow; some wanted American republican values or even to join the United States. Armed rebellions broke out in 1837–38 outside Montreal and in Toronto, but lacked public support and were put down by British troops and Canadian volunteers; some rebels were hanged or exiled. Lord Durham, sent from England to report, recommended merging Upper and Lower Canada and giving them responsible government — meaning ministers of the Crown must hold the support of a majority of elected representatives in order to govern. Controversially he also urged the Canadiens to assimilate, which showed how little he understood French Canada. Upper and Lower Canada were united as the Province of Canada in 1840. Nova Scotia was the first colony to win full responsible government, in 1847–48, and Sir Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine became the first head of a responsible government in Canada in 1849.
Testable facts
- In the 1830s reformers in Upper and Lower Canada believed progress toward full democracy was too slow
- Armed rebellions occurred in 1837-38 outside Montreal and in Toronto and were defeated by British troops and Canadian volunteers
- Lord Durham recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be merged and given responsible government
- Responsible government means that the ministers of the Crown must have the support of a majority of the elected representatives in order to govern
- Under responsible government, if the government loses a confidence vote in the assembly it must resign
- In 1840 Upper and Lower Canada were united as the Province of Canada
- The first British North American colony to attain full responsible government was Nova Scotia in 1847-48
- Sir Louis-Hippolyte La Fontaine was a champion of French language rights and became the first head of a responsible government in Canada in 1849
- Robert Baldwin and Joseph Howe worked with British governors toward responsible government
Confederation
Between 1864 and 1867 representatives of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and the Province of Canada, backed by Britain, worked to build a new country; they are remembered as the Fathers of Confederation. They created two levels of government, federal and provincial. The old Province of Canada was split into Ontario and Quebec, which with New Brunswick and Nova Scotia formed the Dominion of Canada, each province electing its own legislature and controlling matters such as education and health. The British Parliament passed the British North America Act in 1867 and the Dominion was born on 1 July 1867. Until 1982 that day was kept as Dominion Day; it is now Canada Day. Sir Leonard Tilley of New Brunswick proposed the term Dominion of Canada in 1864, taking it from Psalm 72 and its phrase about dominion from sea to sea.
Testable facts
- From 1864 to 1867 representatives of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick and the Province of Canada worked to establish a new country
- The men who established the new country are known as the Fathers of Confederation
- Confederation created two levels of government: federal and provincial
- The old Province of Canada was split into two new provinces, Ontario and Quebec
- Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia formed the new country called the Dominion of Canada
- Each province would elect its own legislature and have control of such areas as education and health
- The British Parliament passed the British North America Act in 1867
- The Dominion of Canada was officially born on July 1, 1867
- Until 1982 July 1 was celebrated as Dominion Day, and today it is officially known as Canada Day
- The phrase Dominion of Canada was proposed in 1864 by Sir Leonard Tilley of New Brunswick, a Father of Confederation
- Tilley took the phrase from Psalm 72, on dominion from sea to sea
Macdonald, Cartier and expansion of the Dominion
Sir John Alexander Macdonald, a Father of Confederation, became Canada's first Prime Minister in 1867. Born in Scotland on 11 January 1815, he came to Upper Canada as a child and practised law in Kingston; Parliament has made 11 January Sir John A. Macdonald Day, and his portrait is on the ten-dollar bill. Sir George-Étienne Cartier was Confederation's key architect from Quebec, a Montreal railway lawyer and close ally of Macdonald who led Quebec into Confederation and helped bring in the Northwest Territories, Manitoba and British Columbia. The Dominion then grew steadily: Manitoba and the Northwest Territories in 1870, British Columbia in 1871, Prince Edward Island in 1873, the Arctic Islands in 1880, Yukon in 1898, Alberta and Saskatchewan in 1905, Newfoundland and Labrador in 1949, and Nunavut in 1999.
Testable facts
- Sir John Alexander Macdonald became Canada's first Prime Minister in 1867
- Sir John A. Macdonald was born in Scotland on January 11, 1815 and came to Upper Canada as a child
- Parliament has recognized January 11 as Sir John A. Macdonald Day
- Sir John A. Macdonald's portrait is on the $10 bill
- Sir George-Étienne Cartier was the key architect of Confederation from Quebec
- Sir George-Étienne Cartier led Quebec into Confederation and helped negotiate the entry of the Northwest Territories, Manitoba and British Columbia
- Manitoba and the Northwest Territories joined Canada in 1870
- British Columbia joined Canada in 1871
- Prince Edward Island joined Canada in 1873
- Yukon Territory joined Canada in 1898
- Alberta and Saskatchewan joined Canada in 1905
- Newfoundland and Labrador joined Canada in 1949
- Nunavut was created in 1999
Louis Riel, the Métis and the Mounties
When Canada took over the vast northwest from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869, the 12,000 Métis of the Red River were not consulted. Louis Riel led an armed uprising and seized Fort Garry, the territorial capital. Ottawa sent soldiers to retake it in 1870; Riel fled to the United States and Canada created a new province, Manitoba. Riel was elected to Parliament but never took his seat. A second rebellion in 1885, in what is now Saskatchewan, ended in his trial and execution for high treason — a decision strongly opposed in Quebec, and many see Riel as a hero, a defender of Métis rights and the father of Manitoba. After the first uprising Macdonald founded the North West Mounted Police in 1873; they established Fort Calgary, Fort MacLeod and other posts that became cities, with Regina as headquarters. Today the Royal Canadian Mounted Police are the national police force and one of Canada's best-known symbols.
Testable facts
- Canada took over the vast northwest region from the Hudson's Bay Company in 1869
- The 12,000 Métis of the Red River were not consulted when Canada took over the northwest
- Louis Riel led an armed uprising and seized Fort Garry, the territorial capital
- Ottawa sent soldiers to retake Fort Garry in 1870 and Canada established a new province, Manitoba
- Riel was elected to Parliament but never took his seat
- A second rebellion in 1885 in present-day Saskatchewan led to Riel's trial and execution for high treason
- Riel is seen by many as a hero, a defender of Métis rights and the father of Manitoba
- Prime Minister Macdonald established the North West Mounted Police in 1873
- The North West Mounted Police founded Fort Calgary, Fort MacLeod and other centres that are today cities and towns
- Regina became the headquarters of the North West Mounted Police
- The Royal Canadian Mounted Police are the national police force and one of Canada's best-known symbols
- Gabriel Dumont was the Métis' greatest military leader
The Canadian Pacific Railway and westward growth
British Columbia joined Canada in 1871 after Ottawa promised a railway to the Pacific. On 7 November 1885 Donald Smith, Lord Strathcona, the Scottish-born director of the Canadian Pacific Railway, drove the last spike — a powerful symbol of unity. British and American investors financed it and European and Chinese labour built it; afterwards Chinese workers faced discrimination including the Head Tax, a race-based entry fee, for which the Government of Canada apologised in 2006. Sir Wilfrid Laurier became the first French-Canadian prime minister since Confederation and encouraged immigration to the West; his portrait is on the five-dollar bill. The railway let immigrants settle the West: 170,000 Ukrainians, 115,000 Poles and tens of thousands from Germany, France, Norway and Sweden arrived before 1914, and in the boom of the 1890s and early 1900s a million British and a million American immigrants came.
Testable facts
- Ottawa's promise of a railway to the West Coast brought British Columbia in during 1871
- On November 7, 1885 Donald Smith, Lord Strathcona, drove the last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway
- The Canadian Pacific Railway was a powerful symbol of unity
- Funding for the Canadian Pacific Railway came from British and American investors; the labour was European and Chinese
- Discrimination followed for Chinese railway workers, the Head Tax among it — a race-based entry fee
- The Government of Canada apologized in 2006 for the Head Tax
- Sir Wilfrid Laurier became the first French-Canadian prime minister since Confederation
- Sir Wilfrid Laurier's portrait is on the $5 bill
- The railway made it possible for 170,000 Ukrainians, 115,000 Poles and tens of thousands from Germany, France, Norway and Sweden to settle in the West before 1914
- One million British and one million American immigrants came to Canada during the boom of the 1890s and early 1900s
The First World War
Most Canadians were proud of the British Empire. Over 7,000 volunteered for the South African War of 1899–1902, popularly the Boer War, and over 260 died; in 1900 Canadians fought at Paardeberg and Lillefontein. When Germany attacked Belgium and France in 1914 and Britain declared war, Ottawa raised the Canadian Expeditionary Force, later the Canadian Corps. More than 600,000 Canadians served, mostly volunteers, from a population of eight million. The Canadian Corps captured Vimy Ridge in April 1917 with 10,000 killed or wounded, securing a reputation for valour as the shock troops of the British Empire; one officer said he had witnessed the birth of a nation, and 9 April is Vimy Day. In 1918, under General Sir Arthur Currie, Canada's greatest soldier, the Corps advanced in the last hundred days, including the Battle of Amiens on 8 August 1918, which the Germans called the black day of the German Army. The war ended in the Armistice of 11 November 1918. In total 60,000 Canadians were killed and 170,000 wounded.
Testable facts
- Over 7,000 Canadians volunteered to fight in the South African War of 1899-1902, popularly known as the Boer War, and over 260 died
- Ottawa formed the Canadian Expeditionary Force, later the Canadian Corps, when Britain declared war in 1914
- More than 600,000 Canadians served in the First World War, most of them volunteers, out of a population of eight million
- The Canadian Corps captured Vimy Ridge in April 1917, with 10,000 killed or wounded
- Vimy Ridge secured the Canadians' reputation for valour as the shock troops of the British Empire
- April 9 is celebrated as Vimy Day
- General Sir Arthur Currie was Canada's greatest soldier and commanded the Canadian Corps in 1918
- The Battle of Amiens on August 8, 1918 was called the black day of the German Army by the Germans
- The First World War ended in the Armistice on November 11, 1918
- In total 60,000 Canadians were killed and 170,000 wounded in the First World War
- From 1914 to 1920 Ottawa interned over 8,000 former Austro-Hungarian subjects, mainly Ukrainian men, as enemy aliens in 24 labour camps
Remembrance Day
Canadians remember the sacrifice of veterans and the fallen in every war they took part in, each 11 November: Remembrance Day. They wear the red poppy and keep a moment of silence at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month, honouring more than a million men and women who served and the 110,000 who died. Canadian medical officer Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae wrote the poem In Flanders Fields in 1915, and it is often recited on the day.
Testable facts
- Remembrance Day is observed each year on November 11
- Wearing the poppy remembers every Canadian who served or died in war, up to the present day
- Canadians wear the red poppy and observe a moment of silence at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month
- Over a million brave men and women have served, and 110,000 have given their lives
- Canadian medical officer Lieutenant-Colonel John McCrae composed the poem In Flanders Fields in 1915
Between the wars and the Second World War
After the First World War the British Empire became a free association of states, the British Commonwealth of Nations, of which Canada remains a leading member. The Roaring Twenties were prosperous, but the stock market crash of 1929 brought the Great Depression, the Dirty Thirties: unemployment hit 27% in 1933 and Prairie farmers suffered low grain prices and drought. The Bank of Canada, a central bank to manage the money supply, was created in 1934. The Second World War began in 1939 when Adolf Hitler, the Nazi dictator of Germany, invaded Poland. More than a million Canadians and Newfoundlanders served, out of a population of 11.5 million, and 44,000 were killed. Canadians fought at Hong Kong in 1941 and Dieppe in 1942, took part in liberating Italy in 1943–44, and on D-Day, 6 June 1944, 15,000 Canadian troops captured Juno Beach in Normandy — roughly a tenth of the Allied soldiers ashore that day were Canadian. Dutch liberation followed in 1944–45, and Canada helped compel Germany to surrender on 8 May 1945. Japan surrendered on 14 August 1945.
Testable facts
- After the First World War the British Empire evolved into a free association of states known as the British Commonwealth of Nations
- Canada remains a leading member of the Commonwealth
- The stock market crash of 1929 led to the Great Depression, also called the Dirty Thirties
- Unemployment reached 27% in 1933
- The Bank of Canada, a central bank to manage the money supply, was created in 1934
- The Second World War began in 1939 when Adolf Hitler, the Nazi dictator of Germany, invaded Poland
- More than one million Canadians and Newfoundlanders served in the Second World War, out of a population of 11.5 million
- 44,000 Canadians were killed in the Second World War
- Canadians fought in the unsuccessful defence of Hong Kong in 1941 and a failed raid on Dieppe in 1942
- Canadians took part in the liberation of Italy in 1943-44
- On D-Day, June 6, 1944, 15,000 Canadian troops stormed and captured Juno Beach in Normandy
- Approximately one in ten Allied soldiers on D-Day was Canadian
- The Canadian Army liberated the Netherlands in 1944-45
- The German surrender of May 8, 1945 brought six years of war in Europe to an end
- Japan surrendered on August 14, 1945
- At the end of the Second World War Canada had the third-largest navy in the world
- The Royal Canadian Navy saw its finest hour in the Battle of the Atlantic, protecting convoys of merchant ships against German submarines
Modern Canada, the Cold War and Quebec
Postwar Canada prospered. Oil was discovered in Alberta in 1947, starting the modern energy industry, and by 1951 a majority of Canadians could afford adequate food, shelter and clothing for the first time. Canada joined the United Nations, fought in the UN operation defending South Korea in the Korean War of 1950–53 with 500 dead and 1,000 wounded, and has served in many peacekeeping missions. It helped form NATO, a military alliance, and joined the United States in NORAD. Unemployment insurance came in 1940, Old Age Security was devised as early as 1927, and the Canada and Quebec Pension Plans arrived in 1965. Quebec's rapid change in the 1960s is called the Quiet Revolution; Parliament set up the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in 1963, leading to the Official Languages Act of 1969, and Canada helped found La Francophonie in 1970. Quebec sovereignty was defeated in referendums in 1980 and again in 1995, and in 1982 the Constitution was amended without Quebec's agreement.
Testable facts
- The discovery of oil in Alberta in 1947 began Canada's modern energy industry
- In 1951, for the first time, a majority of Canadians were able to afford adequate food, shelter and clothing
- Canada joined international organizations such as the United Nations
- Canada participated in the UN operation defending South Korea in the Korean War of 1950-53, with 500 dead and 1,000 wounded
- Canada joined other democratic countries to form the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, a military alliance
- Canada joined with the United States in the North American Aerospace Defence Command
- Unemployment insurance, now called employment insurance, was introduced by the federal government in 1940
- Old Age Security was devised as early as 1927 and the Canada and Quebec Pension Plans in 1965
- Quebec experienced an era of rapid change in the 1960s known as the Quiet Revolution
- In 1963 Parliament established the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism
- The Official Languages Act of 1969 guarantees French and English services in the federal government across Canada
- In 1970 Canada helped found La Francophonie, an international association of French-speaking countries
- The movement for Quebec sovereignty was defeated in a referendum in 1980 and again in 1995
- In 1982 the Constitution was amended without the agreement of Quebec
- Publicly funded education is provided by the provinces and territories
Canadian achievements and inventions
Canadians have a long record of discovery. Sir Frederick Banting of Toronto and Charles Best discovered insulin, a hormone that treats diabetes and has saved 16 million lives worldwide. The telephone came to Alexander Graham Bell as an idea while he was staying at his Canadian summer home. Joseph-Armand Bombardier invented the snowmobile, and Sir Sandford Fleming devised the worldwide system of standard time zones. Matthew Evans and Henry Woodward together invented the first electric light bulb before selling the patent to Thomas Edison. Reginald Fessenden sent the world's first wireless voice message. Dr. Wilder Penfield was a pioneering brain surgeon at McGill known as the greatest living Canadian, and Dr. John A. Hopps invented the first cardiac pacemaker. SPAR Aerospace and the National Research Council built the Canadarm, used in space, and Mike Lazaridis and Jim Balsillie of Research in Motion produced the BlackBerry. Basketball was invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891.
Testable facts
- Sir Frederick Banting of Toronto and Charles Best discovered insulin, a hormone to treat diabetes
- The discovery of insulin has saved 16 million lives worldwide
- It was at his Canadian summer house that Alexander Graham Bell conceived the telephone
- Joseph-Armand Bombardier invented the snowmobile, a light-weight winter vehicle
- Sir Sandford Fleming invented the worldwide system of standard time zones
- The first electric light bulb was the work of Matthew Evans and Henry Woodward, who sold the patent on to Thomas Edison
- Reginald Fessenden contributed to the invention of radio, sending the first wireless voice message in the world
- Dr. Wilder Penfield was a pioneering brain surgeon at McGill University and was known as the greatest living Canadian
- Dr. John A. Hopps invented the first cardiac pacemaker
- SPAR Aerospace and the National Research Council invented the Canadarm, a robotic arm used in outer space
- Mike Lazaridis and Jim Balsillie of Research in Motion produced the BlackBerry
- Basketball was invented by Canadian James Naismith in 1891
- Hockey is Canada's most popular spectator sport and is considered the national winter sport
- Lacrosse, an ancient sport first played by Aboriginals, is the official summer sport